Carbon Capture https://climateconnection.org.in/ en Why should India think again about bringing carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) technology in the country? https://climateconnection.org.in/updates/why-should-india-think-again-about-bringing-carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage-ccus <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--updates.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--updates.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Why should India think again about bringing carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) technology in the country?</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--updates.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--updates.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/siteadmin" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">siteadmin</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--updates.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--updates.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Thu, 10/09/2020 - 17:58</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--updates.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--updates.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>By Aakanksha Tiwari, Researcher-Environment and Climate Action</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Introduction</strong></p> <p>As the name suggests, carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) involves capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the coal-fired power plants or carbon-intensive industries and then make use of CO2 (CCU) and pumping the compressed CO2 deep underground for long-term storage (CCS). The <a href="https://www.thermalwatch.org.in/resources/climate-crisis-breaking-back-south-asian-countries">climate crisis is breaking the back of South-Asia</a> and many other parts of the world. As a solution, the Paris Agreement (COP 21) has suggested investing in <a href="https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/connections-between-the-paris-agreement-and-the-2030-agenda.pdf">Sustainable Development</a> and <a href="http://unfccc.int/ttclear/misc_/StaticFiles/gnwoerk_static/brief10/8c3ce94c20144fd5a8b0c06fefff6633/57440a5fa1244fd8b8cd13eb4413b4f6.pdf">Technological Innovation</a> for keeping global temperatures from rising more than 1.5℃ above pre-industrial levels by 2030. Therefore, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/geoengineering">Geoengineering</a> methods for capture, utilisation and storage of CO2, which is the major greenhouse gas, has been globally promoted as a <a href="https://www.project-syndicate.org/bigpicture/a-climate-silver-bullet">climate silver bullet</a> or a <a href="https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Global-CCS-Institute-Fact-Sheet_What-is-CCS.pdf">climate game-changer</a>. </p> <p>In July 2020, <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-and-the-us-join-hands-to-explore-clean-coal-technologies-experts-flag-failure-of-power-plants-in-complying-with-emission-standards/articleshow/77042545.cms">India decided to collaborate with the US </a>to bring the carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technology into India for reducing the country's emissions from coal-based energy generation. The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) and Indian Oil Corporation (IOCL) have joined hands for <a href="https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/news/ongc-iocl-ccus-project-india/">launching CCUS-EOR project</a> in IOCL’s Koyali refinery in Gujarat, India. However, the commercial-scale implementation of this contentious technology is <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-2/">reported</a> to require massive land and resource consumption, which is neither sustainable nor climate-friendly. </p> <p><em>Figure 1: Status of large-scale CCUS projects around the world  (Source: <a href="https://co2re.co/FacilityData">GCCSI 2020</a>).</em><img alt="" height="311" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/CXzyQPvl9OybgVO0nqHFJ2TGf3uzyNdM_Z36qm-DhNL7W5jbyr9Xtw7QPN0itj_ImaJhgVEwosrbNNYnSUYm7y6M3a-NtuYOVRUYeg4omxXvmMLrRsotf9oE9Hnt0GFl0hOv5-ZH" width="512" /></p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Major applications</strong></p> <ol> <li>CO2 capture: The carbon dioxide can be sequestered either by using direct air capturing (DAC) methods such as chemical absorption processes and membrane-based technologies or by biological fixation of carbon through photosynthetic organisms such as micro-algae.</li> <li>CO2 utilisation: The innovative approaches for utilisation of captured CO2 as a feedstock in the chemical, energy and material sectors is a field of novel research. The non-converted form is used for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) and converted form as fuel and other products (see figure 1).</li> <li>CO2 storage: The deep ocean water and subsurface deposit area into the earth’s crust are the two huge potential reservoirs for storage of CO2 gas. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the targeted 14% of emissions reductions through carbon capture and storage (CCS) will require over 100 billion tonnes of (cumulative) storage capacity by 2060.</li> </ol> <p><img alt="" height="365" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/L_WIVSEIo1MO4ld80fh4zBBYbq0MjZTDA4NYawaJvGz2W1WdQ9AQ9h0cOFaCri7D_NQZoSQz0g6D2VRxlblETz4_T3l7ltkrGnt8RCAy2MBYIGZspAq58UIh3svdAEEwk9dIAVDu" width="624" /></p> <p><em>Figure 2: An illustration of the applications of Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) technology. (Image Credit - <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CCU_vs_CCS.png">Wikimedia Commons</a>)</em></p> <p><strong>Major challenges </strong></p> <ol> <li>Social issues: The carbon abatement through CCUS technologies will allow the use of fossil fuels by power generation sector and other carbon-intensive industries. Therefore, the synergistic effects of other pollutants such as Mercury, SO2, NOx and dust on the health of local communities and their surrounding environment will remain unchanged. </li> <li>Economic issues: There is a wide range of financial costs of CCUS technologies, depending on the capital and operation of CO2 capture, transport and subsurface injection. Research for a suitable storage site is a <a href="https://www.airclim.org/acidnews/ccs-still-failure">long and costly process</a>. The clean coal technology undermines the coal’s ability to compete with solar and other renewable sources by <a href="https://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Holy-Grail-of-Carbon-Capture-Continues-to-Elude-Coal-Industry_November-2018.pdf">adding $60 per ton cost for CO2 capture</a>. Thus, CCUS projects may face the risk of closure due to economic downturns.</li> <li>Environmental issues: Storing CO2 in a safe and stable manner will require an efficient and timely audit for leakage rates of CO2 back to the atmosphere from potential <a href="https://www.thermalwatch.org.in/sites/default/files/Resource/Geoengineering_Land_02_ThermalWatch_July_2019_0.pdf">land-based</a> and <a href="https://www.thermalwatch.org.in/sites/default/files/Resource/Geoengineering_Marine_01_ThermalWatch_June_2019.pdf">marine</a> sequestration reservoirs. The transportation of captured CO2 and pumping into oil and gas reservoirs for EOR will further <a href="https://www.airclim.org/acidnews/ccs-still-failure">push for more use of these fossil fuels</a> and will release the CO2 back into the atmosphere. Thus, full environmental monitoring of this process through experts is necessary before using CCUS technology to mitigate climate change.</li> </ol> <p><em>Table 1: Details of unsuccessful projects (Source: <a href="https://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Holy-Grail-of-Carbon-Capture-Continues-to-Elude-Coal-Industry_November-2018.pdf">IEEFA, 2018</a>).</em></p> <div> <table> <tr> <td> <p>Name</p> </td> <td> <p>Location</p> </td> <td> <p>Project type</p> </td> <td> <p>Year of commissioning</p> </td> <td> <p>Why has it failed?</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Boundary Dam/SaskPower</p> </td> <td> <p>Saskatchewan, Canada</p> </td> <td> <p>Carbon Capture and Storage- Enhanced Oil Recovery (CCS-EOR)</p> </td> <td> <p>2014</p> </td> <td> <p>Not economically sustainable</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Petra Nova/NRG Energy</p> </td> <td> <p>Texas, US</p> </td> <td> <p>Carbon Capture and Storage- Enhanced Oil Recovery (CCS-EOR)</p> </td> <td> <p>2017</p> </td> <td> <p>Energy-intensive and high operational cost </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Kemper/Southern Co.</p> </td> <td> <p>Mississippi, US</p> </td> <td> <p>Integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC)</p> </td> <td> <p>2014</p> </td> <td> <p>Water intensive and high operational cost</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Edwardsport/Duke Energy</p> </td> <td> <p>Indiana, US</p> </td> <td> <p>Integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC)</p> </td> <td> <p>2013</p> </td> <td> <p>Poor and expensive operating performance</p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <p> </p> <p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p> <p>The protection of human societies and the environment against the negative impacts resulting from rapid climate change globally require to achieve the 45% greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) reduction target by 2030 and net-zero by 2050. Since the proposed <a href="https://theecologist.org/2020/nov/13/carbon-dioxide-removal-sucks?s=08">carbon capture and storage technology is carbon-intensive</a> in itself, the CO2 removal through the CCUS projects is an ineffective, expensive and non-eco friendly approach to mitigate climate change. Therefore, India should focus on <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/02/SR15_Chapter2_Low_Res.pdf">IPCC’s</a> low energy demand (LED) scenario for limiting peak warming to below 1.5°C, which encourages countries to invest in sustainable alternatives to CCUS technologies for <a href="https://www.fern.org/fileadmin/uploads/fern/Documents/Missing%20Pathways%20exec%20summary.pdf">a holistic response to climate change</a>, as follows:</p> <p> </p> <ol> <li><strong>Restoring forests and other ecosystems for increasing natural sequestration of carbon dioxide:</strong></li> </ol> <ul> <li>Ecosystem restoration</li> <li>Natural regeneration</li> <li>Avoiding conversion of Natural ecosystems</li> <li>Responsible use of forests</li> </ul> <ol start="2"> <li><strong>Transforming the food system and conserving biodiversity for reducing carbon emissions:</strong></li> </ol> <ul> <li>Demand - consumers should focus on healthy diets, reducing food miles and reducing food waste.</li> <li>Supply - producers should focus on ecological livestock production methods, agroforestry and reducing chemical fertiliser use.</li> </ul> <ol start="3"> <li><strong>Respecting the land rights of indigenous communities and <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/pdf/ILK_ex_publication_E.pdf">revitalising indigenous knowledge</a> to mitigate climate change.</strong></li> <li><strong>Financing energy efficiency and establishing nationwide energy efficiency goals to reduce energy intensity (energy used per unit of gross domestic product),<a href="https://www.wri.org/climate/expert-perspective/role-energy-efficiency-long-term-climate-change-planning"> just like Mexico</a>.</strong></li> </ol> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-tags--updates.html.twig x field--node--field-tags.html.twig * field--node--updates.html.twig * field--field-tags.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--field-tags.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-tags field--type-entity-reference field--label-inline clearfix"> <h3 class="field__label inline">Tags</h3> <ul class='links field__items'> <li><a href="/tags/carbon-capture" hreflang="en">Carbon Capture</a></li> </ul> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--field-tags.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--updates.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_37 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="https://climateconnection.org.in/updates/why-should-india-think-again-about-bringing-carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage-ccus" data-a2a-title="Why should India think again about bringing carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) technology in the country?"><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_google_gmail"></a><a class="a2a_button_whatsapp"></a><a class="a2a_button_telegram"></a><a class="a2a_button_linkedin"></a><a class="a2a_button_reddit"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a><a class="a2a_button_copy_link"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> Thu, 10 Sep 2020 12:28:35 +0000 siteadmin 535 at https://climateconnection.org.in https://climateconnection.org.in/updates/why-should-india-think-again-about-bringing-carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage-ccus#comments Marine geoengineering - not a quick fix for climate crisis https://climateconnection.org.in/resources/marine-geoengineering-not-quick-fix-climate-crisis <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--resources.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--resources.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Marine geoengineering - not a quick fix for climate crisis</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--resources.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--resources.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; text-align: center; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 3pt;">-by <a datatype="" href="https://www.cag.org.in/author/niraj-bhatt-researcher-environment-and-climate-change" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-decoration-line: none; outline: -webkit-focus-ring-color auto 5px; outline-offset: -2px; font-family: Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;" typeof="skos:Concept">Niraj Bhatt, Researcher - Environment and Climate Change</a></p> <h1 dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:20pt;margin-bottom:6pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-style: italic; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Introduction to geoengineering:</span></span></h1> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As life on our planet struggles in Anthropocene to arrest the increasing greenhouse gas emissions and resultant global heating, a “new technological magic bullet” is gaining traction among humans. Proponents of geoengineering advocate it as the only way to meet 2015 Paris climate agreement targets while maintaining our current over-consumptive lifestyles. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Geoengineering</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> or climate engineering as it is also known, is deliberate and large scale manipulation of Earth’s natural processes. Geoengineering is being proposed as a technological fix to counteract the pernicious effects of climate crisis. Geoengineering is an umbrella term that encompasses technologies falling under two categories: greenhouse gas removal and solar radiation management (SRM). Carbon dioxide (CO</span><span style="font-size: 6.6pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: sub; white-space: pre-wrap;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) </span><span style="font-size: 6.6pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: sub; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">removal is the main subcategory under greenhouse gas removal technologies to remove climate warming gases from the atmosphere, while SRM technologies aim to cool the planet by reflecting away sunlight from the </span><a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/stratosphere-overview" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">stratosphere</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> itself, thus preventing greenhouse gases to absorb solar radiation and heating our planet.</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: center;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="" data-entity-type="" data-entity-uuid="" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/qmgrNGY1sLFlg-zbe5B5NvV9BrTyIud-JLGmWbtU3QkLF_U3m4KubiHRa-Nqo2m474a4bEtyNkotpduQdk46rwAN8E5MgaWcgea58UowNtTA_dhRXAVxI--3NNNPwUTe7x1bH18" style="border: none; width: 681px; height: 380px;" /></span></span></p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: center;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Geoengineering proposals include modifying land, air and water to either reflect more sunlight back into space or reducing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Image courtesy: University of Leeds</span></span></p> <h1 dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:20pt;margin-bottom:6pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-style: italic; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Marine geoengineering:</span></span></h1> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Greenhouse gas removal and SRM both rely on oceans, land and atmosphere to deploy their technological solutions. In the first part of this three part series, we focus on technologies under marine geoengineering that propose large scale modification of our oceans to arrest greenhouse gases and reflect solar radiation. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) defines marine geoengineering as “a deliberate intervention in the marine environment to manipulate natural processes, including to counteract anthropogenic climate change and/or its impacts, and that has the potential to result in deleterious effects, especially where those effects may be widespread, long-lasting or severe". Ocean fertilisation under greenhouse gas removal and ocean foam or microbubble technology under SRM are the two marine geoengineering technologies that have attracted geoengineering proponents.</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Oceans cover 71 percent of Earth’s surface and are the largest carbon sinks. Ocean life is supported by sunlight that penetrates through the ocean waters and this heat trapped by oceans plays a part in heating our planet. Phytoplankton (microscopic species in oceans) harness solar energy, consume CO</span><span style="font-size: 6.6pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: sub; white-space: pre-wrap;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and release oxygen (O</span><span style="font-size: 6.6pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: sub; white-space: pre-wrap;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) while growing, and are the base of the ocean food web. Phytoplankton consume carbon dioxide on a scale equivalent to forests and other land plants. Part of this carbon is carried to the deep ocean when phytoplankton die, and part transferred to different layers of the ocean as phytoplankton are eaten by other ocean creatures, which themselves reproduce, generate waste, and die. Growth of phytoplankton in oceans is controlled by the availability of necessary nutrients for growth, particularly iron and nitrogen. Proponents of ocean fertilisation plan to accelerate this process by supplying iron and nitrates in the ocean to enhance phytoplankton growth. They say that higher phytoplankton growth will lead to higher CO</span><span style="font-size: 6.6pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: sub; white-space: pre-wrap;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> sequestration from the atmosphere.</span></span></p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: center;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="" data-entity-type="" data-entity-uuid="" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/MOukxcvmTicXULgKFcQCiyR0laxE3dTM7t5-EigizqyaoPW1axIvJlTtcUsnhwZfJ2zP1tmOOmQ40xN6rbDQSWZv2fABJfVmJSpA8NozP4UOlsck-ohLlhDK8RdEDxrC1K2Ak7M" style="border: none; width: 681px; height: 296px;" /></span></span></p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: center;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ocean fertilisation ignores emissions reduction  and focuses on putting nutrients in oceans to spur phytoplankton growth believing it will sink extra carbon to the ocean floor. Image courtesy: Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Foundation</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ocean foam or microbubble are SRM technologies that aim to increase the reflectivity of the ocean waters to reflect  more sunlight back into space, thus reducing the heat trapped by the oceans. This is usually achieved by spraying chemical foaming agents on the ocean surface, kept floating using latex/polystyrene. Proponents say microbubble technology can be deployed with ease as ships travelling around the globe can be used to distribute chemical surfactants that can stay as microbubbles for weeks, while some groups are also </span><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2015JD024201" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">researching</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> whether brightening ship </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">wakes</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> can reduce climate change.</span></span></p> <h1 dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:20pt;margin-bottom:6pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-style: italic; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Risks associated with marine geoengineering:</span></span></h1> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Proponents of ocean fertilisation and ocean foam technologies overlook the fact that oceans already are our largest and most important carbon sink on Earth, storing around 50 times as much carbon as in the atmosphere. Oceans are also providing us more than 50 percent of oxygen and have complex and highly evolved ecosystems which we have not fully understood. To effect meaningful change, a quarter of the global ocean surface  would have to be fertilised. The impacts of artificial fertilisation on such a large industrial scale in our oceans cannot be foreseen or quantified. High growth of phytoplanktons leads to floating mat-like structures on the ocean surface (algal blooms) that can physically hinder mixing of oxygen from the atmosphere with surface waters. This leads to the creation of dead zones by depleting oxygen in the water below, resulting in large scale death of fish and other large ocean animals. This will have a deep impact on the global fishing community and threaten human health as fish are an important protein source for more than half the human population. Livelihood of coastal communities dependent on thriving ocean ecosystems will be threatened. There is enough </span><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/461347a" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">evidence</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> through scientific studies to show that the amount of carbon sunk to the ocean floor is either very low or undetectable because much of the carbon is brought back to the atmosphere via food chain.</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: center;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="" data-entity-type="" data-entity-uuid="" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/LoRf4JkwPxr3s5TFhff7N5tHMEnmrwGo8BS_FuNrQ0vumS9lsZCQGQn2_nZXVz17M-lT-mgv34Dk2-ZuwSFda-rrWQH7xuhkOp7H6kRSuqLYDj44zIVetUyqEHcWu0HKKRXnSMo" style="border: none; width: 700px; height: 380px;" /></span></span></p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: center;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ocean fertilisation could have negative impacts on ocean ecosystems, depleting oxygen, causing harmful algal blooms and disrupting the marine food chain. Image courtesy: Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Foundation</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Microbubble technology is flawed in its concept itself as it overlooks a pressing problem of microplastic pollution in our oceans and its implementation would lead to more microplastics in the oceans. We already </span><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/commentisfree/2019/jun/24/the-earths-climate-is-paying-for-our-addiction-to-plastic" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">know</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> the deleterious impacts of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems and on human health, and plastic industry itself is dependent on fossil fuels and contributes to the emission of greenhouse gases. Having an artificial layer of reflective chemicals on the ocean’s surface would deplete oxygen levels below the surface, leading to the death of marine life. Microbubble technology will cut access of light for the ocean life, destroying marine ecosystems and lowering ocean productivity. Without access to enough light, oceans would not be able to absorb the carbon that they already do and we would have extra greenhouse gases to deal with in the atmosphere. While large scale deployment would certainly have an impact by reflecting sunlight, we cannot predict what these will be, owing to lack of research on tempo-spatial impacts on marine ecosystems. As ocean waters are connected through ocean currents and impact weather patterns globally, tinkering with this natural process would lead to unpredictable changes in ocean currents, leading to disruptions in rainfall patterns across the world. The resultant cycles of floods and droughts would lead to rise in geopolitical tensions across regions. Economically powerful nations could modify weather patterns anywhere in the world deploying chemical surfactants at chosen sites, effectively giving them a handle to punish other nations for reasons they believe in. The BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in the year 2011 saw the company spray tonnes of chemical surfactants to disperse the spilled oil, but it was later </span><a href="https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2010/08/bp-ocean-dispersant-corexit/" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">discovered</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> that this chemical surfactant killed much more marine life than what the spilled oil could have. Microbubble technology is a solution for man made problems that if deployed, will create far larger and complex problems to solve.</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Marine geoengineering is the only branch of geoengineering that has any international regulatory framework and is subject to regulations under ‘</span><a href="http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Pages/default.aspx" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter, London Protocol 1996</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">’. Under this convention, ocean fertilisation is specifically prohibited, but new experiments continue to be announced in different parts of the world under the guise of expanding local fish numbers for commercial  purposes, with the </span><a href="https://permaculturenews.org/2012/11/07/ocean-fertilization-promotes-toxic-algae-in-haida-gwaii/" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">project</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in open seas off the coast of Haida Gwaii being the most controversial ocean iron fertilisation project till date. </span></span></p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Here, we have discussed only two main categories of marine geoengineering projects that are under different stages of conceptualisation to be implemented globally. The Joint Working Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (</span><a href="http://www.gesamp.org" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">GESAMP</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) has published an expert </span><a href="http://www.gesamp.org/site/assets/files/1996/rs98e.pdf" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">review</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of a wide range of proposed marine geoengineering techniques.</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In India, marine geoengineering is at discussion levels only with the main </span><a href="https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/116/01/0040.pdf" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(17, 85, 204); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">concerns</span></a><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of Indian policy makers around governance mechanisms for such large scale trans-boundary projects. There is justified apprehension around the financing, governance and implementation issues before making a start. The ecological risks and aversion to large scale modifications to natural processes has kept India away from marine geoengineering projects.</span></span></p> <p> </p> <p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;text-align: justify;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9b719cfd-7fff-add6-4be0-3c889a666354"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: &quot;EB Garamond&quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is crucial that we identify and relate to the fact that any meaningful path to meeting the 2015 Paris Agreement targets goes through our shift away from fossil fuel-dominated societies to alternative and sustainable sources for energy. We cannot continue getting electricity from coal, and let our transport run on petrol and diesel, and then leave it on the oceans to soak up the greenhouse gases. The marine geoengineering methods are untested, prohibitively expensive and, have sufficient known negative impacts that warrant us to tread with caution.</span></span></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--resources.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--resources.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/admin" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">thwmaster</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--resources.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--resources.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Wed, 17/07/2019 - 15:26</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-attachments--resources.html.twig * field--node--field-attachments.html.twig * field--node--resources.html.twig * field--field-attachments.html.twig * field--file.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-attachments field--type-file field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'file_link' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/file-link.html.twig' --> <span class="file file--mime-application-pdf file--application-pdf"> <a href="https://climateconnection.org.in/sites/default/files/Resource/Geoengineering_Marine_01_ThermalWatch_June_2019.pdf" type="application/pdf">Geoengineering_Marine_01_ThermalWatch_June_2019.pdf</a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/file-link.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-tags--resources.html.twig x field--node--field-tags.html.twig * field--node--resources.html.twig * field--field-tags.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--field-tags.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-tags field--type-entity-reference field--label-inline clearfix"> <h3 class="field__label inline">Tags</h3> <ul class='links field__items'> <li><a href="/tags/geoengineering" hreflang="en">Geoengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/marine-geoengineering" hreflang="en">Marine Geoengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/ocean-fertilization" hreflang="en">Ocean Fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/global-energy-supply" hreflang="en">Global Energy Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/climate-change" hreflang="en">Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/carbon-capture" hreflang="en">Carbon Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/clean-energy" hreflang="en">Clean Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/carbon-dioxide-removal" hreflang="en">Carbon dioxide removal</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/stoppwatch" hreflang="en">Stoppwatch</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/newsletter" hreflang="en">Newsletter</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/front-page" hreflang="en">front page</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/june" hreflang="en">June</a></li> <li><a href="/tags/2019" hreflang="en">2019</a></li> </ul> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--field-tags.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--resources.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_37 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="https://climateconnection.org.in/resources/marine-geoengineering-not-quick-fix-climate-crisis" data-a2a-title="Marine geoengineering - not a quick fix for climate crisis"><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_google_gmail"></a><a class="a2a_button_whatsapp"></a><a class="a2a_button_telegram"></a><a class="a2a_button_linkedin"></a><a class="a2a_button_reddit"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a><a class="a2a_button_copy_link"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> Wed, 17 Jul 2019 09:56:48 +0000 thwmaster 456 at https://climateconnection.org.in